Between two cultures we are presented with two variants of virtue. One, the Roman variant, is pietas, and the other arete. These two different styles of virtue effect how each culture acts. Events that occur to these two cultures prove one thing, and I will express the evidence that arete is not the best virtue to follow.. And that is that pietas is better to follow then arete.


Arete is the Greek variant of virtue. The definition of arete is excellence in battle. As long as a soldier kills many men or survives through a rough battle, they will deserve arete. Tyrtaios, a Spartan poet, defines arete in a poem of his.


This o this is virtue: This is the noblest deed


That can decorate our youths with bright sun rays,


The polis repays them for all the perils of war


In the front rows of the phalanx,


The young hero glories in the fight.


Even though troops all around him fall and die,


The young her stills fights and refuses shameful flight.


His soul opposes dim death and years to survive,


Still, he dares to defy the terrors of the field.1




Tyrtaios' definition is that a soldier who fights in the front of the phalanx, the spartan battle formation, and the soldier fights on even if his friends are dieing around him, he never runes from a battle and he lives through many battles, and is not afraid of death. This is what arete is.


I have chosen three Greek heroes that I believe represent arete, and I will describe their successes that lead to them earning it, the first being Leonidas. When the Persians were moving down onto Greece, Leonidas wanted to defend Greece at Thermopylae. But, Sparta was in a celebration that did not allow them to go to war. Leonidas understood the importance of defending at Thermopylae, so he gets as many men as he can and secretly leaves for Thermopylae. On the way he assembles as many troops as he can, and then arrives at Thermopylae. He manages to defend the pass, with about 7000 men, from an army of about 25,000 that are on land for 5 days. When Xerxes discovers the goat path from the farmer, and the Spartans realize this, they send all the other troops except the Thracians away, and push in farther inside of Thermopylae. He does this because of a prophecy that says:


As for you who dwell in the vast land of Sparta, Either your city of glory will perish, sacked by


Perseids, Or else the boundaries of Lacedaemon will grieve for the death of a king born of Herakles, Since neither bulls nor lions have enough might to oppose him, for the power of Zeus


is in his possession. And he, I declare, will not be restrained until one or the other is torn apart.2




So, he moves on into Thermopylae, knowing he will die because Sparta needs the death of a king for Sparta to live. They fight until their swords and shields break and retreated to a better fortified position. o On this spot they tried to defend themselves with daggers if they still had them, or if not, with their hands and teeth.o 3 The Spartans here are the epitome of arete because even they did die, they held off a much larger force then theirs for a long period of time, and killed at least thousands of Persians.


One Greek hero who arete is Themistocles. He is an Athenian who is an amazing politician and general. He is described as being able to o take a small or insignificant city in hand and raise it to glory and greatness.o 4 He led a fleet composed of Athenian and other Greek vessels, to Salamis where the final naval battle against Xerxes was to take place. The other Greek leaders were afraid, and tried to retreat. But Themistocles recognized the strategic position of the thin strip of water at Salamis. He deceivingly sent a messenger to Xerxes, telling him what the Greeks were doing, and forced the Greeks to fight here. Because of his stroke of genius, he saved the rest of Greece and was able to defeat Xerxes. But this made him feel more free, open to do what he wanted. Awhile after this battle he is blamed for the murder of a Spartan. He ends up being exiled, since he runs away before his trial. When he is exiled he goes to Persia, a enemy of all Greece. There, he switches sides and becomes a Persian adviser. When Athens takes Egypt back from the Persians, it forces the Persians to counter-attack. Of course, they call in Themistocles to help them. Instead, he drinks a poison, he would rather die then harm his country.


Alcibiades was a famous Greek orator and leader. He saw his opportunity when Spartan ambassadors came to visit Athens and create a peace treaty. When the ambassadors entered and told the Athenians that they had full power to accept a treaty, Alcibiades told the ambassadors that they can not be so naive and offered to help them. Then in the debate, when the Spartan representative delegates said that they did not have full power, Alcibiades then o immediately changed his tone and attacked them furiously, as though he and not they were the injured party, and proceeded to denounce them as liars and opportunists who had no genuine mission in Athens at all.o 5 This was planned, and it let the Spartans escape without having to make an unfair treaty. Once they left, no one understood the trick and Nicias was dumbfounded and shamed. He was shamed because Nicias was supposed to bring the peace to Athens and Sparta, but instead one of his delegates created war between them. Because of this, Alcibiades was promoted to general. He then took over Argos, Mantinea, and Elis as allies of Athens. No one liked this move, but it created a war for Sparta that kept them distracted and away from Athens, and it was a dangerous war for Sparta so Athens gained much from distracting them. He then convinced allies to make long walls down to their ports, so they would depend on Athens navy. After this, his life turned into one of luxury, debauchery, insolence, and drunkenness. He would wear purple robes and would buy everything he wanted. Finally, he decides to take on a large ambition held by every Athenian: Sicily. He is forced to lead with Nicias, his enemy. But when they were going to take off, the Hermae were mutilated. Alcibiades was blamed for this, but set sail for Sicily because the Assembly thought they should not take away Alcibiades chance to capture Sicily. While Alcibiades was trying to fight, he was recalled back for his trial. But when he leaves, he sabotages a plan to capture a city for Athens, and when he was asked if he could trust his own city he says: o Yes, in other things, if you like. But where my life is at stake, I wouldn't trust my own mother to mistake a black pebble for a white one when she casts her vote.o 6 He then renounced his country and went to Sparta for asylum. After that, he convinced Sparta to send a force and attack the Athenian force. Then, when the Athenians went after him in Sparta, he changed sides once again and went to Persia. When Persia was attacking Sparta an Athens, and Athens was nearly destroyed, he sent information about Persia to Athens that would help Athens. He controlled what was sent and assigned blame to several of his enemies, which were killed. In the end all of his friends possessed the power of Athens. He got the people to command him to return to Athens, but he did not want to return empty handed. He captured 30 enemy triremes and gave them to the Persians. But the Persians arrested him and he had to serve time in jail. He escapes his jail later though, and steals a horse and runs. He then made his way to Athens and then instantly took control of the army and led them out to attack. Athens is victorious, and Alcibiades is famous and at the top. Because of him Athens survived, even though he switched sides many times. Even though he really was never loyal to any country, he still retains arete due to his excellence in battle.


Pietas is the Roman version for virtue. Its definition is more in depth, harder to translate then arete. To have pietas means that as a Roman citizen, he fulfills his duty to his state and protects it, fulfills his destiny, protects and cares for his family, follows and protects his penates, and in following the path to complete these he learns what it is to be a Roman. W.R. Johnson gives a great definition:


Among the most resonant and untranslatable words in the Latin language. Pietas connotes


a kind of spiritual integrity that is grounded in the individual's sure recognition of his place in the order of things. In learning his responsibilities to his family, his city, his gods, and to all humankind, the individual learns also something of the eternal, universal truths that govern all reality. In meeting his responsibilities as son and brother, as husband and father, as citizen, as worshiper, as human being, in so revering the mysterious truths that shape his existence, the individual learns to know and honor himself, understands the value of his life, and therein finds both his identity and happiness. This was the core of Roman life.7





My first choice for the Romans who represent pietas is Julius Caesar. The first noticeable incident with Caesar is when pirates capture him and hold him hostage. They offer the ransom of him at twenty talents, and once they offer that Caesar laughs. o He is said to have ridiculed them, saying that they obviously did not know whom they were holding, and he volunteered to pay fifty talentso 8 He then acted as if he was their leader, ordering them what to do and constantly insulting and threatening them while in the pirates custody. He constantly would say that he would have them all crucified, and his word was not broken. Once he gathered together fifty talents, he then set sail and gathered his navy. He came back shortly to their camp after they released him, and captured them. He then crucified them all, true to his word. Caesar then starts to get more involved in politics, and forms the first 'triumvirate' albeit unofficial. It formed when Pompey was out fighting in wars and everyone was worried that he would come back and take power for himself. Instead, he came back and immediately disbanded his army. Caesar then approached Pompey and Crassus, who was the richest man in Rome, and offered an alliance that would benefit them all. This formed the first Triumvirate, which Caesar will use to get to consul, an eventually dictator. When he was an aedile he hosted huge games and entertained the public and put himself in a large debt. With this he won the love of the common people, and the hate of the patricians. So he decided to achieve pontifex maximus, which is a life long position and means he is sacrosanct. He out-bribes his competitors, and acquires the position. He then goes to Spain as the praetor, earns the title imperator, and gains a large amount of wealth. He returns to Rome and wants to run for consul, and he also wants a triumph. He has to forfeit his triumph though, because he has to be inside the city for him to be elected as consul. Then he was able to gain the consulship. After much work, the triumvirate finally achieved its goals. Caesar got his army and an opportunity to use his army, Pompey got his veterans their land and he was allowed to settle the east, and Crassus got one third of the taxes from Asia. Although now, all three of these men were hated by Romans and Italians alike. Finally, Caesar leaves for his provinces, Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul. Caesar fought in Gaul for the next nine years, amassing huge amounts of wealth. He conquered all of Gaul and then some of Britain, and the whole time was sending cart-fulls of gold back to Rome. While Caesar was indisposed, Rome fell into anarchy. Pompey was declared dictator, to try and restore Rome. The next year, a consul came into power that hated Caesar, Marcellus. He then argued that next years consuls should debate what happens to Caesar next year, and Claudius Marcellus is voted in. Claudius is Marcellus' cousin and shares his hate of Caesar, so he makes him give up two legions. Before the two legions leave, he gives them 250 drachmas per soldier, and gains their loyalty. Those two legions stay in Italy. When tensions arose between Caesar and Pompey, civil war broke out. Caesar crosses the Rubicon, saying o 'Iacta alea est' (The die is cast)o 9. Once he crosses the Rubicon, Caesar has committed treason and needs to take over Rome or accept his punishment. Pompey gave him an ultimatum, either to relinquish command or to become an enemy of Rome. But, the only men Pompey has are the two legions that were recalled from Caesar, the ones that received 250 drachmas per soldier. These two legions are more loyal to Caesar then to Pompey. Pompey tries to recruit new men in Italy, but most of the men will not join. Even if they did, it would be Pompey's new and inexperienced troops against Caesar's troops which have been fighting for him for nearly ten years in Gaul. Zoch gives us an example of their dedication: o So devoted were Caesar's soldiers that, at the beginning of the war, his centurions offered to pay for a cavalryman, each from his own savings, and his foot soldiers offered to fight without pay or rations and to pool resources so no one would go short.o 10 Once Caesar reached Italy, Pompey fled and declared that any senators that stay in Rome will be traitors. After Rome was taken, Caesar went out and conquered Spain again. He captured all of the Roman and Italian enemies, and had them disband their armies and then let them go. He was not against Rome at this time, but instead he was trying to fix Rome. Whenever Caesar conquered a Roman town, he would try as hard as he could to make sure his soldiers would not plunder the town. Because of this he gained the favor of many Italians. When Caesar had finally reached Pompey's camp, Caesar had to come up with a reasonable plan to attack the larger force with more provisions, troops, and boats. During this time, his troops had run out of food. o Caesar's troops, however, were so low on provisions that at one point his men were forced to bake bread made from tree roots. They threw some of the loaves to the Pompeians to prove that they were not starving.o 11 Caesar suffers from a small defeat, so he retreats and goes to Thessaly where he could acquire food for his troops more easily. At this time, Pompey is joined by Scipio, and the leadership over the Pompeian army is divided. Finally, both armies meet at the plain of Pharsalus. Pompey lets Caesar charge his army, and does not charge back. Caesar's army is used to this though, and stops halfway to rest so they are not exhausted when they reach the enemies' battle line. They then throw their javelins, and their cavalry rushed forward. Caesar planned to have to face the superior cavalry, so he held an extra cohort behind. He then used this cohort to smash the cavalry, and after that it was easy for Caesar. Pompey used the fighting armies as a distraction, and fled to Egypt. Caesar went to Egypt, and was greeted with Pompey's head and signet ring in a box. Caesar then retreated to his camp, cried for Pompey who was a dear friend, and then left for Rome. Upon returning, his troops had mutinied. All Caesar had to do was address them as 'quirites' or citizens, and they begged to be allowed back into the military. Caesar now has restored peace to Rome, and starts to claim back its lost land during the Civil wars. Because of Caesar, Octavian now has the starting platform he needs to bring peace to all of Rome.


Augustus, also known as Octavian, was Caesar's adopted son. He is known for bringing peace to all of Rome for the first time in a century. It started when Octavian went to Marcus Antonius for his inheritance, about two thirds of Caesars estate. Antonius was unwilling to give his inheritance because Caesar had given nothing to him in his will. Antony blew off Octavian, and underestimated him. So, from his own pocket, Octavian paid for the games of the inauguration for the Temple of Venus, and had a golden chair sneaked into the theater in honor of Caesar. Since the people enjoyed that so much, Octavian also had a bronze stature of Caesar wearing a crown of stars put up in the Temple. He then had the month Quintilius renamed in Caesars honor. After doing all of this, he ran out of money. Octavian then sold all of his estate, and used the money from that to fulfill his obligations to accept Caesars will. Octavian then gave out cash to Caesar's veterans, and gained their loyalty because he was about to get revenge on Caesar's murderer's. Antonius marched to Gaul, to take over the province, and at this time Rome declared war on Antonius. Octavian then marched to Gaul with the two consuls, and defeated Antonius. One consul was killed, and the other mortally injured, but Octavian was fine and Antonius defeated. Octavian then took Hirtius' consulship, since he was killed in the battle. Then, the second triumvirate was created. Except this time, it was publicly recognized and legalized, via the Lex Titia. The Lex Titia says that the three men in the triumvirate were supposed to restore Rome. Then the three of the went on proscriptions, to gain money to pay for their forty-five legions and to also acquire revenge on their enemies. Antony at this time was distracted in Egypt with Cleopatra. Octavian used this time to solve many issues in Rome an Italy. One of the problems was S. Pompey, who would keep raiding Roman supply ships. Octavian then said he would give twenty thousand soldiers to Antony, if Antony gave him five thousand ships. Antony agreed, but Octavian never sent him the soldiers in return for the navy. But one on the triumvirates, Leipidus, was conspiring with S. Pompey. Octavian had him banished. Antonius has practically left Rome to live in Egypt, he divorced Octavia and also said he wanted to be buried in Egypt even if he died in Rome. This horrified the public people, which was announced when Octavian took the will from the Vestal Virgins. This gained Octavian the love of the common people. Antony and Cleopatra both attacked Rome, and sent a navy down to Greece. But the navy was quickly defeated by Octavian, and they fled to Egypt. Octavian went to Egypt, and Cleopatra sent a message to Antony that she committed suicide. Antony quickly killed himself, and died in Cleopatra's arms. Octavian finally had Rome at peace.


The final representation of pietas is Coriolanus, a highly respected senator that betrays Rome. Coriolanus disliked the plebeians, and so when the grain was in high demand, he proposed to the Senate to hold the grain and make the plebeians give up the tribunate. The Senate was enraged at this idea, and was going to put him on trial when he decided to choose exile. He then went to the Volsci, and took control and marched on Rome. When he was camped outside the city, and it was obvious that Rome was in great danger, Rome sent several messengers to Coriolanus. He ignored them all, until one day o 'If my eyes aren't fooling me,' one of Coriolanus's officers said to him, 'your mother, wife, and children are here.'o 12 His family came, and when he went to hug his mother his mother refuses.


'Before you hug me,' she said, 'let me know whether I have come to my son or to my enemy, and whether I am your prisoner or your mother in your camp. Have my long life and unhappy old age brought me to this, that I should see you first an exile and then an enemy of Rome? Could you destroy this land that produced and nourished you? Although you came here with dangerous intentions and threats, didn't your anger die down as soon as you entered the borders? Once Rome came into view, didn't the thought enter your mind, 'Inside those walls are my house, my household gods, my mother, my wife, and my children'?'13




Because of his mother, Coriolanus is reminded of his sense of pietas. His duty to his city, to being a good husband, father, son, and brother. To follow his penates and defend his city. Because of this moment, Coriolanus realizes that his only duty that he could do to follow pietas is to lead the Volsci away. He withdraws his army, and leaves Rome.


Through these six people we have experienced why pietas is better then arete. Arete has no moral aspect to it, as long as you are strong, brave, and skilled in war you have arete. It does not matter that Alcibiades switched back and forth from side to side, he was an amazing general and a good fighter and earned arete because of it. He had no loyalty but deserved arete due to his skills. And Leonidas disobeyed the council of the Elders, the final decision makers of Sparta, to go and take his three hundred men to Thermopylae. Themistocles left Athens after showing his loyalty, and went over to Persia. He retained his arete because of his mind and skills. But pietas is better because it has a moral aspect of loyalty and belief. Caesar had pietas because he followed his penates, protected his family, and did the best for Rome. Even though that meant that he had to take over Rome to bring peace, he still has pietas because it let Octavian take over and bring Rome to its peak of prosperity. Octavian has pietas because he manages to bring complete peace to Rome. Rome reaches its peak, its point of perfection, underneath Octavian. He fulfilled his duty to his city, completed his destiny. Coriolanus has pietas because even though he turned on Rome and temporarily forgot his sense of pietas, he managed to remember it and fulfill his duty and protect Rome from himself, and left. Pietas is the better variant of virtue because it is not just a self centered aspect of virtue, but it takes into account the city, the gods, and the family. This is why pietas is better then arete.



1Tyrtaios, War Songs Poem III, lines 1-9



2Ancient Greece White book, RCS prime sources 2012, pg 134.



3Ancient Greece White book, RCS prime sources 2012, pg 136.



4Plutarch, Penguin Classics Publishing, The Life of Themistocles, pg 78.



5Plutarch, Penguin Classics, The Life of Alcibiades, pg 257



6Plutarch, Penguin Classics, The Life of Alcibiades, pg, 265.



7W.R. Johnson, The Idea of Lyric: Lyric Modes in Ancient and Modern Poetry. University of California Press, 1983, p 121.



8Zoch, Ancient Rome an Introductory History, University of Oklahoma Press 1998, pg 167.



9Zoch, Ancient Rome an Introductory History, Oklahoma University Press 1998, pg 195.



10Zoch, Ancient Rome an Introductory History, Oklahoma University Press 1998, pg 195.



11Zoch, Ancient Rome an Introductory History, Oklahoma University Press 1998, pg 197.



12Zoch, Ancient Rome an Introductory History, Oklahoma University Press 1998, pg. 59



13Zoch, Ancient Rome an Introductory History, Oklahoma University Press 1998, pg. 59